Al-Andalus is the common name of the Muslim states that controlled a large part of the Iberian Peninsula at various periods between 711 and 1492. The Arabic name Al-Andalus probably refers to the Vandals who invaded the peninsula in the 5th century. Politically, Al-Andalus was a province of the Umayyad Caliphate (711-750), the Emirate of Cordoba (750-929), the Cordoba Caliphate (929-1031), the first Taifa Kingdoms (1009-1110), the Almoravid Empire (1085-1145). ), the second Taifa period (1140-1203), the Almohad Caliphate (1147-1238), the third Taifa period (1232-1287) and finally the Granada Emirate (1238-1492).
During the Cordoba Caliphate, the city of Cordoba became one of the leading cultural and economic centres in the Mediterranean Basin, Europe and the Islamic world. Achievements from Al-Andalus advanced Islamic and Western science. Significant advances have been made in fields such as trigonometry (Jabir bin Aflah), astronomy (Zarkali), surgery (Zahraui), pharmacology (Ibn Zuhr) and agriculture (Ibn Bassal and Abu'l-Hayr al-Ishbili). Al-Andalus has been a conduit for cultural and scientific exchange between the Islamic and Christian worlds.
For most of its history, al-Andalus was in conflict with the Christian kingdoms to the north. After the collapse of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus fragmented and became small Taifa states and principalities. The attacks of Christians intensified by the Castilians led by Alfonso VI, culminating in the capture of Toledo in 1085. The Almoravid empire intervened, repelling Christian attacks and placing al-Andalus under direct Almoravid rule. For the next century and a half, al-Andalus became a province of the Muslim empires of both the Marrakesh-based Almoravids and their successors, the Almohads.
In this blog, we will take a closer look at al-Andalus' history and contributions to modern science. To understand the scientific legacy of Al-Andalus, it is necessary to consider both its political and cultural context. We can divide the role of Al-Andalus in the history of science into three main periods: the Umayyad period, the Almoravid-Almohad period and the Granada period.
Umayyad Period
The Umayyad period is the period when al-Andalus was at his scientific peak. During this period, there was a transition from the Emirate of Cordoba to the Caliphate of Cordoba. The Emirate of Cordoba was founded in 756 by Abdurrahman bin Muawiyah, who fled the Umayyad caliphate. Abdurrahman became the leader of Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula and continued the Umayyad dynasty. Abd al-Rahman and his successors strengthened al-Andalus politically and militarily, fighting Christian kingdoms and forming alliances with Moroccan and Berber tribes in Africa. In addition, they gave great importance to culture and science and turned Cordoba into a centre of science and art.
Abdurrahman bin Muawiyah, the founder of the Emirate of Cordoba, was the first emir to support cultural activities. Abdurrahman, himself a poet, encouraged Arabic literature, established a large library in Cordoba and took various scientists under his protection. Abdurrahman II (822-852), grandson of Abdurrahman, invited Ziryab, who was famous in fields such as astronomy, medicine and music, to his palace. Ziryab introduced musical, gastronomic and fashion innovations in al-Andalus, and also opened the first music conservatory in Cordoba. Muhammad I (852-886), son of Abdurrahman II, founded one of the world's earliest universities in Cordoba. This university was a madrasah that taught both religion and sciences.
The most important ruler of the Emirate of Cordoba was Abdurrahman III (912-961). Abd al-Rahman III united al-Andalus politically, degraded the Christian kingdoms, and competed with the Fatimids in Morocco. He declared his caliphate in 929 and established the Cordoba Caliphate. Abdurrahman III made great investments in culture and science and made Cordoba the largest city in the world. There were approximately 70 libraries, 300 baths, 900 mosques and 50 hospitals in Cordoba. The population of the city was around 500 thousand. Medinet el-Zahra palace, built by Abdurrahman III, is considered the architectural masterpiece of al-Andalus.
Haqqani (961-976), the grandson of Abdurrahman III, lived at the peak of the Cordoba Caliphate. Haqqani led al-Andalus to its golden age, both politically and culturally. Haqqani was a ruler with a great interest in science. He dealt with astronomy, medicine, mathematics and philosophy. He established an observatory in his palace and employed famous astronomers such as Zerkali. In addition, chemists such as Ibn Hayyan, historians such as Ibn Julayb, philosophers such as Ibn Hazm and poets such as Ibn Zaydun were also under the patronage of Haqqani.
After Haqqani's death, the Cordoba Caliphate began to collapse. Haqqani's son, Hisham II (976-1009), was only 11 years old when he ascended to the throne. That's why state affairs began to be carried out by the vizier Al-Mansur bin Abi Amir. Al-Mansur was a soldier of al-Andalus.
Fall of Al-Andalus or Cordoba
With the weakening of the Almohad caliphate, Al-Andalus was again divided into Taifa states. During this period, the progress of the Christian kingdoms accelerated and defeated the Almohad army in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. This battle brought the end of Muslim rule in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, leaving only the Emirate of Granada standing.
The Emirate of Granada was founded by the Nasrid dynasty in 1238 and existed until 1492. This emirate existed as a tax-paying vassal state to the Kingdom of Castile. The emirate, which made its last stand in the Battle of Granada, ended in 1492 with the unification of the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. Thus, Al-Andalus disappeared into history.
The Brutality of the Christians in This Event
This environment of peace and prosperity in Andalusia began to deteriorate with the attacks of Christian kingdoms against Andalusia starting from the 11th century. These attacks could not be resisted due to Andalusia's political division, internal strife and lack of external support. As Christians took over the Andalusian lands, they committed great cruelty and massacre against Muslims and Jews. The most painful examples of this cruelty and massacre are:
Fall of Toledo in 1085
Toledo was one of the important cultural centres of Andalusia. There was a scientific and intellectual exchange between Muslims, Jews and Christians here. However, King VI of Castile changed the peace when Alfonso captured the city. The king plundered, burned or converted mosques, madrassas, schools, libraries and houses belonging to Muslims and Jews into churches. Muslims in the city were either killed or enslaved. Jews were deported to ghettos.
Fall of Cordoba in 1236
Cordoba was the capital of the Andalusian caliphate and one of the most brilliant cities in the world. The population of this city was nearly 1 million people. The Cordoba Mosque, the symbol of the city, was one of the most magnificent works of Islamic architecture. However, this splendour ended when the Castilian king Fernando besieged the city. The king received local help to capture the city. Some Christians living in the Ajarquia district in the east of the city then entered the city at night by climbing a tower and massacring the Muslims there. Then, they opened the gates to the king's army. After capturing the city, the king converted the mosque into a church and put a cross there. Muslims in the city were either killed or exiled.
Fall of Seville in 1248
Seville was one of the largest and wealthiest cities in Andalusia. Trade, art and education developed here. However, the city surrendered after the 16-month siege of the Castilian king Fernando III. The king converted the city's main mosque, the Great Mosque, into a church and built a cathedral there. Muslims in the city were either killed or enslaved. Jews were deported to ghettos.
Fall of Granada in 1492
Granada was the last stronghold of Andalusia. There was a kingdom founded by the Nasri dynasty. This kingdom managed to survive for a long time thanks to the agreements it made with Christians. However, the Kingdom of Spain, formed by the union of Isabel I, queen of Castile, and Fernando II, king of Aragon, launched a great campaign and massacre against Granada. As a result of 10 years of wars, the Granada King, Muhammad XII, had to surrender the city. Thus came the end of Andalusia. The Christians converted the Alhambra Mosque, the main mosque of the city, into a church. Muslims and Jews in the city were forced to either convert to Christianity, be murdered or leave the country.
These are some examples of the brutality of the Christians in this event. The Muslims took the Iberian Peninsula with peace and turned this city into the centre of Europeans' Renaissance, but unfortunately, the Christians murdered, massacred, and turned this Peninsula into a sea of blood.
Sources:
: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_%281236%29
: https://www.spainthenandnow.com/spanish-history/al-andalus-rise-and-fall-of-islamic-spain
: https://www.britannica.com/place/Caliphate-of-Cordoba
: https://www.islam21c.com/islamic-thought/history/the-end-of-al-andalus/
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus
[2] https://www.britannica.com/place/Al-Andalus
[3] https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Al-Andalus
[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitna_of_al-Andalus
[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_%281236%29
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